Method and reagent for inhibiting P-glycoprotein (mdr-1-gene)

ABSTRACT

An enzymatic RNA molecule which specifically cleaves mRNA encoded by an mdr-1 gene.

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/882,885, filed May 14, 1992 now abandoned.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to methods for treating cancer.

Transformation is a cumulative process whereby normal control of cell growth and differentiation is interrupted, usually through the accumulation of mutations affecting the expression of genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation.

Scanlon WO91/18625, WO91/18624, and WO91/18913 describes a ribozyme effective to cleave oncogene RNA in the Hras gene. This ribozyme is said to inhibit C-fos expression in response to cis-plantin or other stimuli.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention concerns-use of a ribozyme targeted to the P-glycoprotein (mdr-1 gene) prior to and/or during administration of anticancer chemotherapeutic agents. Inclusion of such a ribozyme increases the susceptibility of the transformed cells to such agents.

Applicant notes that relapse of disease caused by cancerous cells after administration of chemotherapeutic agents is a major problem in obtaining lasting remissions in a clinic. In some neoplasias, relapse is caused by the expansion of a population of transformed cells resistant to the initial and subsequent forms of chemotherapy due to inappropriate expression of the mdr-1 gene, also called P-glycoprotein. Such expression is usually caused by selection of transformed cells that have amplified the mdr-1 gene and thus produce increased amounts of the mdr-1 gene product. Applicant describes treatment of and prevention of this condition by use of ribozymes targeted to the mRNA encoded by this gene.

The MDR1 gene encodes a 170 kDa integral membrane transport protein that confers resistance to certain chemotherapeutic agents such as colchicine, doxorubicin, actinomycin D and vinblastine (reviewed in Gottesman and Pastan 263 J. Biol. Chem. 12163, 1988). The gene has been isolated from both human and rodent cells selected in vitro for resistance to such agents (Roninson et al 309 Nature 626, 1984; and Roninson et al. 83 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA, 4538, 1986), and the entire 4.5-kb MDR1 transcript encoding the human MDR1 has been sequenced (Chenet al., 47 Cell 381, 1986, EMBL accession #M14758). The gene is normally expressed in the cells of the colon, small intestine, kidney, liver and adrenal gland. High levels of MDR1 transcript have been found in adenocarcinomas that are intrinsically resistant to a broad range of chemotherapeutic agents, such as those derived from adrenal, kidney, liver and bowel.

Ribozymes are RNA molecules having an enzymatic activity which is able to repeatedly cleave other separate RNA molecules in a nucleotide base sequence specific manner. Such enzymatic RNA molecules can be targeted to virtually any RNA transcript and efficient cleavage has been achieved in vitro. Kim et al., 84 Proc. Nat. Acad. of Sci. USA 8788, 1987, Haseloff and Gerlach 334 Nature 585, 1988, Cech, 260 JAMA 3030, 1988, and Jefferies et al., 17 Nucleic Acid Research 1371, 1989.

Ribozymes act by first binding to a target RNA. Such binding occurs through the target RNA binding portion of a ribozyme which is held in close proximity to an enzymatic portion of the RNA which acts to cleave the target RNA. Thus, the ribozyme first recognizes and then binds a target RNA through complementary base-pairing, and once bound to the correct site, acts enzymatically to cut the target RNA. Strategic cleavage of such a target RNA will destroy its ability to direct synthesis of an encoded protein. After a ribozyme has bound and cleaved its RNA target it is released from that RNA to search for another target and can repeatedly bind and cleave new targets.

The enzymatic nature of a ribozyme is advantageous over other technologies, such as antisense technology (where a nucleic acid molecule simply binds to a nucleic acid target to block its translation) since the effective concentration of ribozyme necessary to effect a therapeutic treatment is lower than that of an antisense oligonucleotide. This advantage reflects the ability of the ribozyme to act enzymatically. Thus, a single ribozyme molecule is able to cleave many molecules of target RNA. In addition, the ribozyme is a highly specific inhibitor, with the specificity of inhibition depending not only on the base pairing mechanism of binding, but also on the mechanism by which the molecule inhibits the expression of the RNA to which it binds. That is, the inhibition is caused by cleavage of the RNA target and so specificity is defined as the ratio of the rate of cleavage of the targeted RNA over the rate of cleavage of non-targeted RNA. This cleavage mechanism is dependent upon factors additional to those involved in base pairing. Thus, it is thought that the specificity of action of a ribozyme is greater than that of antisense oligonucleotide binding the same RNA site.

Thus, the invention features novel enzymatic RNA molecules, or ribozymes, and methods for their use for inhibiting mdr-1 mRNA expression. Such ribozymes can be used in a method for treatment of disease caused by expression of the mdr-1 gene in man and other animals, including other primates. This conclusion, as noted above, is based upon the finding that many forms of cancer become unresponsive to certain chemotherapeutic agents as a result of overexpression of the mdr-1 gene. The advantage of using ribozymes of the present invention is their ability to specifically cleave the targeted mRNA, ultimately leading to a reduction in target gene activity through a decrease in level of the gene product. Use of mdr-1 specific ribozymes removes the mechanism of drug resistance used by transformed cells, and thus enhances drug therapies for tumor cell growth. These agents can be administered prior to and during chemotherapeutic treatment of those neoplasias known to have a high incidence of drug resistance, or can be used prophylactically for all neoplasias.

Thus, in the first aspect the invention features an enzymatic RNA molecule (or ribozyme) which cleaves mdr-1 mRNA (i.e., mRNA expressed from the mdr-1 gene), or its equivalent. In particular, the invention features hammerhead ribozymes designed to cleave accessible areas of the mdr-1 mRNA. Such areas include those listed below:

    ______________________________________                                         NUCLEOTIDE                                                                     NUMBER   SEQUENCE                                                              ______________________________________                                         NT303    UCUUCCAAGCUGAAAGAAGCAGA                                                                           SEQ. ID. NO. 1                                     NT476    AAACUGAACAAUAAAAGUGAA                                                                             SEQ. ID. NO. 2                                     NT497    AAAGAUAAGAAGGAAAAG SEQ. ID. NO. 3                                     NT514    GAAACCAACUGUCAGUGUA                                                                               SEQ. ID. NO. 4                                     NT546    GCUAUUCAAAUUGGCUUGACAA                                                                            SEQ. ID. NO. 5                                     NT585    GAACUUUGGC         SEQ. ID. NO. 6                                     NT612    CUGGACUUCC         SEQ. ID. NO. 7                                     NT641    GGAGAAAUGAC        SEQ. ID. NO. 8                                     NT686    CUGAUGUCAAACAUCACUAAUA                                                                            SEQ. ID. NO. 9                                     ______________________________________                                    

By "enzymatic RNA molecule" or by "catalytic RNA molecule" it is meant an RNA molecule which has complementarity in a substrate binding region to a specified gene target, and also has an enzymatic activity which is active to specifically cleave RNA in that target. That is, the enzymatic RNA molecule is able to intermolecularly cleave RNA and thereby inactivate a target RNA molecule. This complementarity functions to allow sufficient hybridization of the enzymatic RNA molecule to the target RNA to allow the cleavage to occur. One hundred percent complementarity is preferred, but complementarity as low as 50-75% may also be useful in this invention. By "equivalent" RNA to mdr-1 mRNA is meant to include those naturally occurring mRNA molecules associated with neoplastic diseases in various animals, including humans, and other primates, which have similar structures and functions to that mdr-1 mRNA in humans. The deduced sequences of the mouse and human P-glycoproteins are 80% identical.

In preferred embodiments, the enzymatic RNA molecule is formed in a hammerhead motif, but may also be formed in the motif of a hairpin, hepatitis delta virus, group I intron or RNaseP RNA (in association with an RNA guide sequence). Examples of such hammerhead motifs are described by Rossi et al., 8 AIDS RESEARCH AND HUMAN RETROVIRUSES 183, 1992, of hairpin motifs, Hampel and Tritz, 28 Biochemistry 4929, 1989 and Hampel et al., 18 Nucleic Acids Research 299, 1990, and an example of the hepatitis delta virus motif is described by Perrotta and Been, 31 Biochemistry 16, 1992, of the RNaseP motif by Guerrier-Takada et al., 35 Cell 849, 1983, and of the group I intron by Cech et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,987,071. These specific motifs are not limiting in the invention and those skilled in the art will recognize that all that is important in an enzymatic RNA molecule of this invention is that it has a specific substrate binding site which is complementary to one or more of the target mRNA regions, and that it have nucleotide sequences within or surrounding that substrate binding site which impart an mRNA cleaving activity to the molecule.

In a second related aspect, the invention features a mammalian cell which includes an enzymatic RNA molecule as described above. Preferably, the mammalian cell is a human or other primate cell.

In a third related aspect, the invention features an expression vector which includes nucleic acid encoding the enzymatic RNA molecules described above, located in the vector, e.g., in a manner which allows expression of that enzymatic RNA molecule within a mammalian cell.

In a fourth related aspect, the invention features a method for treatment of an mdr-1 gene-related disease by administering to a patient an enzymatic RNA molecule which cleaves mdr-1 mRNA.

The invention provides a class of chemical cleaving agents which exhibit a high degree of specificity for the mRNA encoded by an mdr-1 gene. If desired, such ribozymes can be designed to target equivalent single-stranded DNAs by methods known in the art. The ribozyme molecule is preferably targeted to a highly conserved sequence region of the mdr-1 mRNA. Such enzymatic RNA molecules can be delivered exogenously to affected cells. In the preferred hammerhead motif the small size (less than 40 nucleotides, preferably between 32 and 36 nucleotides in length) of the molecule allows the cost of treatment to be reduced compared to other ribozyme motifs.

Synthesis of ribozymes greater than 100 nucleotides in length is very difficult using automated methods, and the therapeutic cost of such molecules is prohibitive. Delivery of ribozymes by expression vectors is primarily feasible using only ex vivo treatments. This limits the utility of this approach. In this invention, small ribozyme motifs (e.g., of the hammerhead structure, shown generally in FIG. 1) are used for exogenous delivery. The simple structure of these molecules also increases the ability of the ribozyme to invade targeted regions of the mRNA structure. Thus, unlike the situation when the hammerhead structure is included within longer transcripts, there are no non-ribozyme flanking sequences to interfere with correct folding of the ribozyme structure or with complementary binding of the ribozyme to the mRNA target region.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments thereof, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The drawing will first briefly be described.

Drawing

FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic representation of a hammerhead motif ribozyme showing stems I, II and III (marked (I), (II) and (III) respectively) interacting with a target region. The 5' and 3' ends of both ribozyme and target are shown. Dashes indicate base-paired nucleotides.

TARGET SITES

Ribozymes targeting selected regions of the mdr-1 mRNA are preferably chosen to cleave the target RNA in a manner which inhibits translation of the mRNA. Selection of effective target sites within these critical regions of mRNA entails testing the accessibility of the target mRNA to hybridization with various oligonucleotide probes. These studies can be performed using RNA probes and assaying accessibility by cleaving the hybrid molecule with RNaseH (see below). Alternatively, such a study can use ribozyme probes designed from secondary structure predictions of the RNAs, and assaying cleavage products by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), to detect the presence of cleaved and uncleaved molecules.

The following is but one example of a method by which suitable target sites can be identified and is not limiting in this invention. Generally, the method involves identifying potential cleavage sites for a hammerhead ribozyme, and then testing each of these sites to determine their suitability as targets by ensuring that secondary structure formation is minimal.

The sequence of the mRNA is studied to determine putative ribozyme cleavage sites. These sites represent the preferred sites for hammerhead or other ribozyme cleavage within these target RNAs.

Short RNA substrates corresponding to each of the gene sites are designed. Each substrate is composed of two to three nucleotides at the 5' and 3' ends that will not base pair with a corresponding ribozyme recognition region. The unpaired regions flank a central region of 12-14 nucleotides to which complementary arms in the ribozyme are designed.

The structure of each substrate sequence is predicted using a PC fold computer program. Sequences which give a positive free energy of binding are accepted. Sequences which give a negative free energy are modified by trimming one or two bases from each of the ends. If the modified sequences are still predicted to have a strong secondary structure, they are rejected.

After substrates are chosen, ribozymes are designed to each of the RNA substrates. Ribozyme folding is also analyzed using PC fold.

Ribozyme molecules are sought which form hammerhead motif stem II (see FIG. 1) regions and contain flanking arms which are devoid of intramolecular base pairing. Often the ribozymes are modified by trimming a base from the ends of the ribozyme, or by introducing additional base pairs in stem II to achieve the desired fold. Ribozymes with incorrect folding are rejected. After substrate/ribozyme pairs are found to contain correct intramolecular structures, the molecules are folded together to predict intermolecular interactions. A schematic representation of a ribozyme with its coordinate base pairing to its cognate target sequence is shown in FIG. 1.

Those targets thought to be useful as ribozyme targets can be tested to determine accessibility to nucleic acid probes in a ribonuclease H assay (see below). This assay provides a quick test of the use of the target site without requiring synthesis of a ribozyme. It can be used to screen for sites most suited for ribozyme attack.

Synthesis of Ribozymes

Ribozymes useful in this invention can be produced by gene transcription as described by Cech, supra, or by chemical synthesis. Chemical synthesis of RNA is similar to that for DNA synthesis. The additional 2'-OH group in RNA, however, requires a different protecting group strategy to deal with selective 3'-5' internucleotide bond formation, and with RNA susceptibility to degradation in the presence of bases. The recently developed method of RNA synthesis utilizing the t-butyldimethylsilyl group for the protection of the 2' hydroxyl is the most reliable method for synthesis of ribozymes. The method reproducibly yields RNA with the correct 3'-5' internucleotide linkages, with average coupling yields in excess of 99%, and requires only a two-step deprotection of the polymer.

A method, based upon H-phosphonate chemistry gives a relatively lower coupling efficiency than a method based upon phosphoroamidite chemistry. This is a problem for synthesis of DNA as well. A promising approach to scale-up of automatic oligonucleotide synthesis has been described recently for the H-phosphonates. A combination of a proper coupling time and additional capping of "failure" sequences gave high yields in the synthesis of oligodeoxynucleotides in scales in the range of 14 μmoles with as little as 2 equivalents of a monomer in the coupling step. Another alternative approach is to use soluble polymeric supports (e.g., polyethylene glycols), instead of the conventional solid supports. This method can yield short oligonucleotides in hundred milligram quantities per batch utilizing about 3 equivalents of a monomer in a coupling step.

Various modifications to ribozyme structure can be made to enhance the utility of ribozymes. Such modifications will enhance shelf-life, half-life in vitro, stability, and ease of introduction of such ribozymes to the target site, e.g., to enhance penetration of cellular membranes, and confer the ability to recognize and bind to targeted cells.

Exogenous delivery of ribozymes benefits from chemical modification of the backbone, e.g., by the overall negative charge of the ribozyme molecule being reduced to facilitate diffusion across the cell membrane. The present strategies for reducing the oligonucleotide charge include: modification of internucleotide linkages by methylphosphonates, use of phosphoramidites, linking oligonucleotides to positively charged molecules, and creating complex packages composed of oligonucleotides, lipids and specific receptors or effectors for targeted cells. Examples of such modifications include sulfur-containing ribozymes containing phosphorothioates and phosphorodithioates as internucleotide linkages in RNA. Synthesis of such sulfur-modified ribozymes is achieved by use of the sulfur-transfer reagent, ³ H-1,2-benzenedithiol-3-one 1,1-dioxide. Ribozymes may also contain ribose modified ribonucleotides. Pyrimidine analogues are prepared from uridine using a procedure employing diethylamino sulphur trifluoride (DAST) as a starting reagent. Ribozymes can also be either electrostatically or covalently attached to polymeric cations for the purpose of reducing charge. The polymer can be attached to the ribozyme by simply converting the 3'-end to a ribonucleoside dialdehyde which is obtained by a periodate cleavage of the terminal 2',3'-cis diol system. Depending on the specific requirements for delivery systems, other possible modifications may include different linker arms containing carboxyl, amino or thiol functionalities. Yet further examples include use of methylphosphonates and 2'-o-methylribose and 5' or 3' capping or blocking with m₇ GpppG or m₃ ²,2,7 GpppG.

For example, a kinased ribozyme is contacted with guanosine triphosphate and guanyltransferase to add a m³ G cap to the ribozyme. After such synthesis, the ribozyme can be gel purified using standard procedure. To ensure that the ribozyme has the desired activity, it may be tested with and without the 5' cap using standard procedures to assay both its enzymatic activity and its stability.

Synthetic ribozymes, including those containing various modifiers, can be purified by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Other liquid chromatography techniques, employing reverse phase columns and anion exchangers on silica and polymeric supports may also be used.

These follow an example of the synthesis of one ribozyme. A solid phase phosphoramidite chemistry was employed. Monomers used were 2'-tert-butyl-dimethylsilyl cyanoethylphosphoramidities of uridine, N-benzoyl-cytosine, N-phenoxyacetyl adenosine and guanosine (Glen Research, Sterling, Va.). Solid phase synthesis was carried out on either an ABI 394 or 380B DNA/RNA synthesizer using the standard protocol provided with each machine. The only exception was that the coupling step was increased from 10 to 12 minutes. The phosphoramidite concentration was 0.1 M. Synthesis was done on a 1 μmole scale using a 1 μmole RNA reaction column (Glen Research). The average coupling efficiencies were between 97% and 98% for the 394 model, and between 97% and 99% for the 380B model, as determined by a calorimetric measurement of the released trityl cation.

Blocked ribozymes were cleaved from the solid support (e.g., CPG), and the bases and diphosphoester moiety deprotected in a sterile vial by dry ethanolic ammonia (2 mL) at 55° C. for 16 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled on dry ice. Later, the cold liquid was transferred into a sterile screw cap vial and lyophilized.

To remove the 2'-tert-butyl-dimethylsilyl groups from the ribozyme, the residue was suspended in 1 M tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride in dry THF (TBAF), using a 20 fold excess of the reagent for every silyl group, for 16 hours at ambient temperature (about 15-25° C.). The reaction was quenched by adding an equal volume of sterile 1 M triethylamine acetate, pH 6.5. The sample was cooled and concentrated on a SpeedVac to the half of the initial volume.

The ribozymes were purified in two steps by HPLC on a C4 300 Å 5 mm DeltaPak column in an acetonitrile gradient.

The first step, or "trityl on" step, was a separation of 5'-DMT-protected ribozyme(s) from failure sequences lacking a 5'-DMT group. Solvents used for this step were: A (0.1 M triethylammonium acetate, pH 6.8) and B (acetonitrile). The elution profile was: 20% B for 10 minutes, followed by a linear gradient of 20% B to 50% B over 50 minutes, 50% B for 10 minutes, a linear gradient of 50% B to 100% B over 10 minutes, and a linear gradient of 100% B to 0% B over 10 minutes.

The second step was a purification of a completely deblocked ribozyme by a treatment of 2% trifluoroacetic acid on a C4 300 Å 5 mm DeltaPak column in an acetonitrile gradient. Solvents used for this second step were: A (0.1 M Triethylammonium acetate, pH 6.8) and B (80% acetonitrile, 0.1 M triethylammonium acetate, pH 6.8). The elution profile was: 5% B for 5 minutes, a linear gradient of 5% B to 15% B over 60 minutes, 15% B for 10 minutes, and a linear gradient of 15% B to 0% B over 10 minutes.

The fraction containing ribozyme was cooled and lyophilized on a SpeedVac. Solid residue was dissolved in a minimum amount of ethanol and sodium perchlorate in acetone. The ribozyme was collected by centrifugation, washed three times with acetone, and lyophilized.

Expression Vector

While synthetic ribozymes are preferred in this invention, those produced by expression vectors can also be used. In designing a suitable ribozyme expression vector the following factors are important to consider. The final ribozyme must be kept as small as possible to minimize unwanted secondary structure within the ribozyme. A promoter (e.g., a T7 promoter) should be chosen to be a relatively strong promoter, and expressible both in vitro and in vivo (e.g., by co-infection with the T7 RNA polymerase gene). Such a promoter should express the ribozyme at a level suitable to effect production of enough ribozyme to destroy a target RNA, but not at too high a level to prevent other cellular activities from occurring (unless cell death itself is desired).

A hairpin at the 5' end of the ribozyme is useful to ensure that the required transcription initiation sequence (GG or GGG or GGGAG) does not bind to some other part of the ribozyme and thus affect regulation of the transcription process. The 5' hairpin is also useful to protect the ribozyme from 5'-3' exonucleases. A selected hairpin at the 3' end of the ribozyme gene is useful since it acts as a transcription termination signal, and protects the ribozyme from 3'-5' exonuclease activity. One example of a known termination signal is that present on the T7 RNA polymerase system. This signal is about 30 nucleotides in length. Other 3' hairpins of shorter length can be used to provide good termination and RNA stability. Such hairpins can be inserted within the vector sequences to allow standard ribozymes to be placed in an appropriate orientation and expressed with such sequences attached.

Poly(A) tails are also useful to protect the 3' end of the ribozyme. These can be provided by either including a poly(A) signal site in the expression vector (to signal a cell to add the poly(A) tail in vivo), or by introducing a poly(A) sequence directly into the expression vector. In the first approach the signal must be located to prevent unwanted secondary structure formation with other parts of the ribozyme. In the second approach, the poly(A) stretch may reduce in size over time when expressed in vivo, and thus the vector may need to be checked over time. Care must be taken in addition of a poly(A) tail which binds poly(A) binding proteins which prevent the ribozyme from acting.

Ribozyme Testing

Once the desired ribozymes are selected, synthesized and purified, they are tested in kinetic and other experiments to determine their utility. An example of such a procedure is provided below.

Preparation of Ribozyme

Crude synthetic ribozyme (typically 350 μg at a time) was purified by separation on a 15% denaturing polyacrylamide gel (0.75 mm thick, 40 cm long) and visualized by UV shadowing. Once excised, gel slices containing full length ribozyme were soaked in 5 ml gel elution buffer (0.5 M NH₄ OAc, 1 mM EDTA) overnight with shaking at 4° C. The eluent was desalted over a C-18 matrix (Sep-Pak cartridges, Millipore, Milford, Mass.) and vacuum dried. The dried RNA was resuspended in 50-100 μl TE (TRIS 10 mM, EDTA 1 mM, pH 7.2). An aliquot of this solution was diluted 100 fold into 1 ml TE, half of which was used to spectrophotometrically quantitate the ribozyme solution. The concentration of this dilute stock was typically 150-800 nM. Purity of the ribozyme was confirmed by the presence of a single band on a denaturing polyacrylamide gel.

A ribozyme may advantageously be synthesized in two or more portions. Each portion of a ribozyme will generally have only limited or no enzymatic activity, and the activity will increase substantially (by at least 5-10 fold) when all portions are ligated (or otherwise juxtaposed) together. A specific example of hammerhead ribozyme synthesis is provided below.

The method involves synthesis of two (or more) shorter "half" ribozymes and ligation of them together using T4 RNA ligase. For example, to make a 34 mer ribozyme, two 17 mers are synthesized, one is phosphorylated, and both are gel purified. These purified 17 mers are then annealed to a DNA splint strand complementary to the two 17 mers. (Such a DNA splint is not always necessary.) This DNA splint has a sequence designed to locate the two 17 mer portions with one end of each adjacent each other. The juxtaposed RNA molecules are then treated with T4 RNA ligase in the presence of ATP. The 34 mer RNA so formed is then HPLC purified.

Preparation of Substrates

Approximately 10-30 pmoles of unpurified substrate was radioactively 5' end-labelled with T4 polynucleotide kinase using 25 pmoles of [γ-³² P] ATP. The entire labelling mix was separated on a 20% denaturing polyacrylamide gel and visualized by autoradiography. The full length band was excised and soaked overnight at 4° C. in 100 μl of TE (10 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.6, 0.1 mM EDTA).

Kinetics Reactions

For reactions using short substrates (between 8 and 16 bases) a substrate solution was made 1× in assay buffer (75 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6; 0.1 mM EDTA, 10 mM MgCl₂) such that the concentration of substrate was less than 1 nM. A ribozyme solution (typically 20 nM) was made 1× in assay buffer and four dilutions were made using 1× assay buffer. Fifteen μl of each ribozyme dilution (i.e., 20, 16, 12, 8 and 4 nM) was placed in a separate tube. These tubes and the substrate tube were pre-incubated at 37° C. for at least five minutes.

The reaction was started by mixing 15 μl of substrate into each ribozyme tube by rapid pipetting (note that final ribozyme concentrations were 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 nM). 5 μl aliquots were removed at 15 or 30 second intervals and quenched with 5 μl stop solution (95% formamide, 20 mM EDTA xylene cyanol, and bromphenol blue dyes). Following the final ribozyme time point, an aliquot of the remaining substrate was removed as a zero ribozyme control.

The samples were separated on either 15% or 20% polyacrylamide gels. Each gel was visualized and quantitated with an Ambis beta scanner (Ambis Systems, San Diego, Calif.).

For the most active ribozymes, kinetic analyses were performed in substrate excess to determine K_(m) and K_(cat) values.

For kinetic reactions with long RNA substrates (greater than 15 bases in length) the substrates were prepared by transcription using T7 RNA polymerase and defined templates containing a T7 promoter, and DNA encoding appropriate nucleotides of the mdr-1 gene RNA. The substrate solution is made 1× in assay buffer (75 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6; 0.1 mM EDTA; 10 mM MgCl₂) and contains 58 nanomolar concentration of the long RNA molecules. The reaction is started by addition of gel purified ribozymes to 1 μM concentration. Aliquots are removed at 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 minutes, then quenched by the addition of 5 μl stop solution. Cleavage products are separated using denaturing PAGE. The bands are visualized and quantitated with an Ambis beta scanner.

Kinetic Analysis

A simple reaction mechanism for ribozyme-mediated cleavage is: ##EQU1## where R=ribozyme, S=substrate, and P=products. The boxed step is important only in substrate excess. Because ribozyme concentration is in excess over substrate concentration, the concentration of the ribozyme-substrate complex ([R:S]) is constant over time except during the very brief time when the complex is being initially formed, i.e.,: ##EQU2## where t=time, and thus:

    (R)(S)k.sub.1 =(RS)(k.sub.2 +k.sub.1).

The rate of the reaction is the rate of disappearance of substrate with time: ##EQU3## Substituting these expressions: ##EQU4## Integrating this expression with respect to time yields: ##EQU5## where S₀ =initial substrate. Therefore, a plot of the negative log of fraction substrate uncut versus time (in minutes) yields a straight line with slope: ##EQU6## where k_(obs) =observed rate constant. A plot of slope (k_(obs)) versus ribozyme concentration yields a straight line with a slope which is: ##EQU7##

Using these equations the data obtained from the kinetic experiments provides the necessary information to determine which ribozyme tested is most useful, or active. Such ribozymes can be selected and tested in in vivo or ex vivo systems.

Liposome Preparation

Lipid molecules are dissolved in a volatile organic solvent (CHCl₃, methanol, diethylether, ethanol, etc.). The organic solvent is removed by evaporation. The lipid is hydrated into suspension with 0.1× phosphate buffered saline (PBS), then freeze-thawed 3× using liquid nitrogen and incubation at room temperature. The suspension is extruded sequentially through a 0.4 μm, 0.2 μm and 0.1 μm polycarbonate filters at maximum pressure of 800 psi. The ribozyme is mixed with the extruded liposome suspension and lyophilized to dryness. The lipid/ribozyme powder is rehydrated with water to one-tenth the original volume. The suspension is diluted to the minimum volume required for extrusion (0.4 ml for 1.5 ml barrel and 1.5 ml for 10 ml barrel) with 1×PBS and re-extruded through 0.4 μm, 0.2 μm, 0.1 μm polycarbonate filters. The liposome entrapped ribozyme is separated from untrapped ribozyme by gel filtration chromatography (SEPHAROSE CL-4B, BIOGEL A5M). The liposome extractions are pooled and sterilized by filtration through a 0.2 μm filter. The free ribozyme is pooled and recovered by ethanol precipitation. The liposome concentration is determined by incorporation of a radioactive lipid. The ribozyme concentration is determined by labeling with ³² P. Rossi et al., 1992 supra (and references cited therein) describe other methods suitable for preparation of liposomes.

In Vivo Assay

The efficacy of action of a chosen ribozyme may be tested in vivo by use of cell cultures sensitive to mdr-1 gene expression, using standard procedures.

Ribonuclease Protection Assay

The accumulation of target mRNA in cells or the cleavage of the mRNA by ribozymes or RNaseH (in vitro or in vivo) can be quantified using an RNase protection assay.

In this method, antisense riboprobes are transcribed from template DNA using T7 RNA polymerase (U.S. Biochemicals) in 20 μl reactions containing 1× transcription buffer (supplied by the manufacturer), 0.2 mM ATP, GTP and UTP, 1 U/μl pancreatic RNase inhibitor (Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals) and 200 μCi ³² P-labeled CTP (800 Ci/mmol, New England Nuclear) for 1 h at 37° C. Template DNA is digested with 1 U RNase-free DNase I (U.S. Biochemicals, Cleveland, Ohio) at 37° C. for 15 minutes and unincorporated nucleotides removed by G-50 SEPHADEX spin chromatography.

In a manner similar to the transcription of antisense probe, the target mRNA can be transcribed in vitro using a suitable DNA template. The transcript is purified by standard methods and digested with ribozyme at 37° C. according to methods described later.

Alternatively, cells expressing the target mRNA are harvested into 1 ml of PBS, transferred to a 1.5 ml EPPENDORF tube, pelleted for 30 seconds at low speed in a microcentrifuge, and lysed in 70 μl of hybridization buffer (4 M guanidine isothiocyanate, 0.1% sarcosyl, 25 mM sodium citrate, pH 7.5). Cell lysate (45 μl) or defined amounts of in vitro transcript (also in hybridization buffer) is then combined with 5 μl of hybridization buffer containing 5×10⁵ cpm of each antisense riboprobe in 0.5 ml Eppendorf tubes, overlaid with 25 μl mineral oil, and hybridization accomplished by heating overnight at 55° C. The hybridization reactions are diluted into 0.5 ml RNase solution (20 U/ml RNase A, 2 U/ml RNase T1, 10 U/ml RNase-free DNAse I in 0.4 M NaCl), heated for 30 minutes at 37° C., and 10 μl of 20% SDS and 10 μl of Proteinase K (10 mg/ml) added, followed by an additional 30 minutes incubation at 37° C. Hybrids are partially purified by extraction with 0.5 ml of a 1:1 mixture of phenol/chloroform; aqueous phases are combined with 0.5 ml isopropanol, and RNase-resistant hybrids pelleted for 10 minutes at room temperature (about 20° C.) in a microcentrifuge. Pellets are dissolved in 10 μl loading buffer (95% formamide, 1× TBE, 0.1% bromophenol blue, 0.1% xylene cylanol), heated to 95° C. for five minutes, cooled on ice, and analyzed on 4% polyacrylamide/7 M urea gels under denaturing conditions.

Ribozyme Stability

The chosen ribozyme can be tested to determine its stability, and thus its potential utility. Such a test can also be used to determine the effect of various chemical modifications (e.g., addition of a poly(A) tail) on the ribozyme stability and thus aid selection of a more stable ribozyme. For example, a reaction mixture contains 1 to 5 pmoles of 5' (kinased) and/or 3' labeled ribozyme, 15 μg of cytosolic extract and 2.5 mM MgCl₂ in a total volume of 100 μl. The reaction is incubated at 37° C. Eight μl aliquots are taken at timed intervals and mixed with 8 μl of a stop mix (20 mM EDTA, 95% formamide). Samples are separated on a 15% acrylamide sequencing gel, exposed to film, and scanned with an Ambis.

A 3'-labelled ribozyme can be formed by incorporation of the ³² P-labeled cordycepin at the 3' OH using poly(A) polymerase. For example, the poly(A) polymerase reaction contains 40 mM Tris, pH 8, 10 mM MgCl₂, 250 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM MnCl₂ ; 3 μl P³² cordycepin, 500 Ci/mM; and 6 units poly(A) polymerase in a total volume of 50 μl. The reaction mixture is incubated for 30 minutes at 37° C.

Effect of Base Substitution Upon Ribozyme Activity

To determine which primary structural characteristics could change ribozyme cleavage of substrate, minor base changes can be made in the substrate cleavage region recognized by a specific ribozyme. For example, the substrate sequences can be changed at the central "C" nucleotide, changing the cleavage site from a GUC to a GUA motif. The K_(cat) /K_(m) values for cleavage using each substrate are then analyzed to determine if such a change increases ribozyme cleavage rates. Similar experiments can be performed to address the effects of changing bases complementary to the ribozyme binding arms. Changes predicted to maintain strong binding to the complementary substrate are preferred. Minor changes in nucleotide content can alter ribozyme/substrate interactions in ways which are unpredictable based upon binding strength alone. Structures in the catalytic core region of the ribozyme recognize trivial changes in either substrate structure or the three dimensional structure of the ribozyme/substrate complex.

To begin optimizing ribozyme design, the cleavage rates of ribozymes containing varied arm lengths, but targeted to the same length of short RNA substrate can be tested. Minimal arm lengths are required and effective cleavage varies with ribozyme/substrate combinations.

The cleavage activity of selected ribozymes can be assessed using mdr-1 mRNA-homologous substrates. The assays are performed in ribozyme excess and approximate K_(cat) /K_(min) values obtained. Comparison of values obtained with short and long substrates indicates utility in vivo of a ribozyme. Intracellular Stability of liposome-delivered Ribozymes

To test the stability of a chosen ribozyme in vivo the following test is useful. Ribozymes are 32P-end labeled, entrapped in liposomes and delivered to mdr-1 mRNA containing cells for three hours. The cells are fractionated and ribozyme is purified by phenol/chloroform extraction. Alternatively, cells (1×10⁷, T-175 flask) are scraped from the surface of the flask and washed twice with cold PBS. The cells are homogenized by douncing 35 times in 4 ml of TSE (10 mM Tris, pH 7.4, 0.25 M Sucrose, mM EDTA). Nuclei are pelleted at 100×g for 10 minutes. Subcellular organelles (the membrane fraction) are pelleted at 200,000×g for two hours using an SW60 rotor. The pellet is resuspended in 1 ml of H buffer (0.25 M Sucrose, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.4). The supernatant contains the cytoplasmic fraction (in approximately 3.7 ml). The nuclear pellet is resuspended in 1 ml of 65% sucrose in TM (50 mM Tris, pH 74., 2.5 mM MgCl₂) and banded on a sucrose step gradient (1 ml nuclei in 65% sucrose TM, 1 ml 60% sucrose TM, 1 ml 55% sucrose TM, 50% sucrose TM, 300 ul 25% sucrose TM) for one hour at 37,000×g with an SW60 rotor. The nuclear band is harvested and diluted to 10% sucrose with TM buffer. Nuclei are pelleted at 37,000×g using an SW60 rotor for 15 minutes and the pellet resuspended in 1 ml of TM buffer. Aliquots are size fractionated on denaturing polyacrylamide gels and the intracellular localization determined. By comparison to the migration rate of newly synthesized ribozyme, the various fraction containing intact ribozyme can be determined.

To investigate modifications which would lengthen the half-life of ribozyme molecules intracellularly, the cells may be fractioned as above and the purity of each fraction assessed by assaying enzyme activity known to exist in that fraction.

The various cell fractions are frozen at -70° C. and used to determine relative nuclease resistances of modified ribozyme molecules. Ribozyme molecules may be synthesized with 5 phosphorothioate (ps), or 2'Omethyl (2'-OMe) modifications at each end of the molecule. These molecules and a phosphodiester version of the ribozyme are end-labeled with ³² P and ATP using T4 polynucleotide kinase. Equal concentrations are added to the cell cytoplasmic extracts and aliquots of each taken at 10 min. intervals. The samples are size fractionated by denaturing PAGE and relative rates of nuclease resistance analyzed by scanning the gel with an Ambis β-scanner. The results show whether the ribozymes are digested by the cytoplasmic extract, and which versions are relatively more nuclease resistant. Modified ribozymes generally maintain 80-90% of the catalytic activity of the native ribozyme when short RNA substrates are employed.

Unlabeled, 5' end-labeled or 3' end-labeled ribozymes can be used in the assays. These experiments can also be performed with human cell extracts to verify the observations.

Administration of Ribozyme

Selected ribozymes can be administered prophylactically, or to patients expressing mdr-1 mRNA, e.g., by exogenous delivery of the ribozyme to an infected tissue by means of an appropriate delivery vehicle, e.g., a liposome, a controlled release vehicle, by use of iontophoresis, or ion paired molecules, or covalently attached adducts, and other pharmacologically approved methods of delivery. Routes of administration include intramuscular, aerosol, oral (tablet or pill form), topical, systemic, ocular, intraperitoneal and/or intrathecal. Expression vectors for immunization with ribozymes and/or delivery of ribozymes are also suitable.

The specific delivery route of any selected ribozyme will depend on the use of the ribozyme. Generally, a specific delivery program for each ribozyme will focus on unmodified ribozyme uptake with regard to intracellular localization, followed by demonstration of efficacy. Alternatively, delivery to these same cells in an organ or tissue of an animal can be pursued. Uptake studies will include uptake assays to evaluate cellular ribozyme uptake, regardless of the delivery vehicle or strategy. Such assays will also determine the intracellular localization of the ribozyme following uptake, ultimately establishing the requirements for maintenance of steady-state concentrations within the cellular compartment containing the target sequence (nucleus and/or cytoplasm). Efficacy and cytotoxicity can then be tested. Toxicity will not only include cell viability but also cell function.

Some methods of delivery that may be used include:

a. encapsulation in liposomes,

b. transduction by retroviral vectors,

c. conjugation with cholesterol,

d. localization to nuclear compartment utilizing nuclear targeting site found on most nuclear proteins,

e. neutralization of charge of ribozyme by using nucleotide derivatives, and

f. use of blood stem cells to distribute ribozymes throughout the body.

At least three types of delivery strategies are useful in the present invention, including: ribozyme modifications, particle carrier drug delivery vehicles, and retroviral expression vectors. Unmodified ribozymes, like most small molecules, are taken up by cells, albeit slowly. To enhance cellular uptake, the ribozyme may be modified essentially at random, in ways which reduce its charge but maintains specific functional groups. This results in a molecule which is able to diffuse across the cell membrane, thus removing the permeability barrier.

Modification of ribozymes to reduce charge is just one approach to enhance the cellular uptake of these larger molecules. The random approach, however, is not advisable since ribozymes are structurally and functionally more complex than small drug molecules. The structural requirements necessary to maintain ribozyme catalytic activity are well understood by those in the art. These requirements are taken into consideration when designing modifications to enhance cellular delivery. The modifications are also designed to reduce susceptibility to nuclease degradation. Both of these characteristics should greatly improve the efficacy of the ribozyme. Cellular uptake can be increased by several orders of magnitude without having to alter the phosphodiester linkages necessary for ribozyme cleavage activity.

Chemical modifications of the phosphate backbone will reduce the negative charge allowing free diffusion across the membrane. This principle has been successfully demonstrated for antisense DNA technology. The similarities in chemical composition between DNA and RNA make this a feasible approach. In the body, maintenance of an external concentration will be necessary to drive the diffusion of the modified ribozyme into the cells of the tissue. Administration routes which allow the diseased tissue to be exposed to a transient high concentration of the drug, which is slowly dissipated by systemic adsorption are preferred. Intravenous administration with a drug carrier designed to increase the circulation half-life of the ribozyme can be used. The size and composition of the drug carrier restricts rapid clearance from the blood stream. The carrier, made to accumulate at the site of infection, can protect the ribozyme from degradative processes.

Drug delivery vehicles are effective for both systemic and topical administration. They can be designed to serve as a slow release reservoir, or to deliver their contents directly to the target cell. An advantage of using direct delivery drug vehicles is that multiple molecules are delivered per uptake. Such vehicles have been shown to increase the circulation half-life of drugs which would otherwise be rapidly cleared from the blood stream. Some examples of such specialized drug delivery vehicles which fall into this category are liposomes, hydrogels, cyclodextrins, biodegradable nanocapsules, and bioadhesive microspheres.

From this category of delivery systems, liposomes are preferred. Liposomes increase intracellular stability, increase uptake efficiency and improve biological activity.

Liposomes are hollow spherical vesicles composed of lipids arranged in a similar fashion as those lipids which make up the cell membrane. They have an internal aqueous space for entrapping water soluble compounds and range in size from 0.05 to several microns in diameter. Several studies have shown that liposomes can deliver RNA to cells and that the RNA remains biologically active.

For example, a liposome delivery vehicle originally designed as a research tool, Lipofectin, has been shown to deliver intact mRNA molecules to cells yielding production of the corresponding protein.

Liposomes offer several advantages: They are non-toxic and biodegradable in composition; they display long circulation half-lives; and recognition molecules can be readily attached to their surface for targeting to tissues. Finally, cost effective manufacture of liposome-based pharmaceuticals, either in a liquid suspension or lyophilized product, has demonstrated the viability of this technology as an acceptable drug delivery system.

Other controlled release drug delivery systems, such as nonoparticles and hydrogels may be potential delivery vehicles for a ribozyme. These carriers have been developed for chemotherapeutic agents and protein-based pharmaceuticals, and consequently, can be adapted for ribozyme delivery.

Topical administration of ribozymes is advantageous since it allows localized concentration at the site of administration with minimal systemic adsorption. This simplifies the delivery strategy of the ribozyme to the disease site and reduces the extent of toxicological characterization. Furthermore, the amount of material to be applied is far less than that required for other administration routes. Effective delivery requires the ribozyme to diffuse into the infected cells. Chemical modification of the ribozyme to neutralize negative charge may be all that is required for penetration. However, in the event that charge neutralization is insufficient, the modified ribozyme can be co-formulated with permeability enhancers, such as Azone or oleic acid, in a liposome. The liposomes can either represent a slow release presentation vehicle in which the modified ribozyme and permeability enhancer transfer from the liposome into the infected cell, or the liposome phospholipids can participate directly with the modified ribozyme and permeability enhancer in facilitating cellular delivery. In some cases, both the ribozyme and permeability enhancer can be formulated into a suppository formulation for slow release.

Ribozymes may also be systemically administered. Systemic absorption refers to the accumulation of drugs in the blood stream followed by distribution throughout the entire body. Administration routes which lead to systemic absorption include: intravenous, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intranasal, intrathecal and ophthalmic. Each of these administration routes expose the ribozyme to an accessible diseased tissue. Subcutaneous administration drains into a localized lymph node which proceeds through the lymphatic network into the circulation. The rate of entry into the circulation has been shown to be a function of molecular weight or size. The use of a liposome or other drug carrier localizes the ribozyme at the lymph node. The ribozyme can be modified to diffuse into the cell, or the liposome can directly participate in the delivery of either the unmodified or modified ribozyme to the cell.

A liposome formulation which can deliver oligonucleotides to lymphocytes and macrophages is also useful. This oligonucleotide delivery system inhibits viral proliferation in these viruses that infect primary immune cells. Whole blood studies show that the formulation is taken up by 90% of the lymphocytes after 8 hours at 37° C. Preliminary biodistribution and pharmacokinetic studies yielded 70% of the injected dose/gm of tissue in the spleen after one hour following intravenous administration.

Intraperitoneal administration also leads to entry into the circulation with the molecular weight or size controlling the rate of entry.

Liposomes injected intravenously show accumulation in the liver, lung and spleen. The composition and size can be adjusted so that this accumulation represents 30% to 40% of the injected dose. The remaining dose circulates in the blood stream for up to 24 hours.

The chosen method of delivery should result in cytoplasmic accumulation and molecules should have some nuclease-resistance for optimal dosing. Nuclear delivery may be used but is less preferable. Most preferred delivery methods include liposomes (10-400 nm), hydrogels, controlled-release polymers, microinjection or electroporation (for ex vivo treatments) and other pharmaceutically applicable vehicles. The dosage will depend upon the disease indication and the route of administration but should be between 100-200 mg/kg of body weight/day. The duration of treatment will extend through the course of the disease symptoms, possibly continuously. The number of doses will depend upon disease delivery vehicle and efficacy data from clinical trials.

Establishment of therapeutic levels of ribozyme within the cell is dependent upon the rate of uptake and degradation. Decreasing the degree of degradation will prolong the intracellular half-life of the ribozyme. Thus, chemically modified ribozymes, e.g., with modification of the phosphate backbone, or capping of the 5' and 3' ends of the ribozyme with nucleotide analogs may require different dosaging. Descriptions of useful systems are provided in the art cited above, all of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.

The claimed ribozymes are also useful as diagnostic tools to specifically or non-specifically detect the presence of a target RNA in a sample. That is, the target RNA, if present in the sample, will be specifically cleaved by the ribozyme, and thus can be readily and specifically detected as smaller RNA species. The presence of such smaller RNA species is indicative of the presence of the target RNA in the sample.

Other embodiments are within the following claims.

    __________________________________________________________________________     #             SEQUENCE LISTING                                                 - (1) GENERAL INFORMATION:                                                     -    (iii) NUMBER OF SEQUENCES:    9                                           - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:1:                                             -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            23ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #1:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    #                23AAGC AGA                                                    - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:    2:                                         -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            21ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #2:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    #21                GUGA A                                                      - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:    3:                                         -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            18ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #3:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    #  18              AG                                                          - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:    4:                                         -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            19ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #4:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    # 19               GUA                                                         - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:    5:                                         -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            22ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #5:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    #                 22GAC AA                                                     - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:    6:                                         -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            10ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #6:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    #        10                                                                    - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:    7:                                         -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            10ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #7:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    #        10                                                                    - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:    8:                                         -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            11ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #8:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    #       11                                                                     - (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:    9:                                         -      (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                           #            22ENGTH:                                                          #              nucleic acid                                                    #        singleTRANDEDNESS:                                                    #           linearLOGY:                                                        #9:   (ii) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:                                    #                 22UAA UA                                                     __________________________________________________________________________ 

I claim:
 1. A catalytic RNA molecule which is active to specifically cleave the sequence shown as any of SEQ. ID. NOS. 1-9.
 2. The catalytic RNA molecule of claim 1 wherein said RNA molecule is in a hammerhead motif.
 3. The catalytic RNA molecule of claim 1 wherein said RNA molecule is in a hairpin, hepatitis Delta virus, group 1 intron, or RNaseP RNA motif.
 4. A mammalian cell comprising a catalytic RNA molecule of any of claims 1, 2 or
 3. 5. The cell of claim 4, wherein said cell is a human cell.
 6. An expression vector comprising nucleic acid encoding the catalytic RNA molecule of any of claims 1 or 2, in a manner which allows expression of that catalytic RNA molecule within a mammalian cell. 